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parecord
The parecord (“Pulse Audio record”) command is a tool that lets you record anything passing through your system's sound system. You can use it to record streaming music, Internet radio interviews, sound effects, and anything else your computer is playing at any given moment. If you can hear it through your computer speakers, you can record it.
Install
As long as you have Pulse Audio installed, you already have the parecord command.
Configuration
The parecord command counts on you knowing your own computer's audio configuration. This can seem overwhelming if you're not used to how Linux systems categorise audio, and even moreso if you have a computer with a complex audio setup.
The first thing to keep in mind is that there are two basic types of audio happening on your computer: inputs and outputs. In Pulse Audio terminology, these are called sources (inputs) and sinks (outputs). The terms “input” and “output”, of course, are from the point of view of Pulse Audio itself: Pulse Audio can send audio to sinks and receive audio from sources.